Underwater hockey

Underwater hockey is a fast team sport played along the bottom of a swimming pool. Players use short sticks to move a heavy puck toward a goal, surfacing for air between dives.

Learn how the game works, what players wear, and how teamwork and breath control shape play—then test your knowledge in the quiz.

Underwater hockey: Study Guide

Table of Contents

1. The game at a glance
2. Origins and names
3. Equipment and playing area
4. Teams, rules, and scoring
5. Skills and tactics
6. Safety, training, and competition
7. Summary

The game at a glance

Underwater hockey is a team sport played underwater in a swimming pool. Two teams compete to move a puck along the pool bottom and into the opposing team’s goal. Players use a small hand-held stick, often called a pusher, to move the puck. The sport is also known as Octopush, especially in the United Kingdom, where it began.

The game combines swimming, breath-holding, puck control, and quick cooperation. Players do not stay underwater for an entire match. Instead, they dive to take part in a short passage of play, then return to the surface to breathe while a teammate continues the contest. The puck can change direction quickly, so players need to watch the game, communicate, and decide when to dive.

Although the sport is played underwater, it is not scuba hockey: players do not use tanks or breathe underwater. They swim using fins and breathe through a snorkel at the surface. The playing area is generally the bottom of a pool, and the goals sit at opposite ends. Spectators may watch from the poolside or, at some venues, through underwater viewing windows or cameras.

Underwater hockey is governed internationally by CMAS, the World Underwater Federation. National organizations and tournament rules may specify details such as match format and equipment, so these can differ somewhat from one event to another. The central idea remains consistent: use the stick to advance the puck and score, while following rules designed for safe, fair play.

Origins and names

Underwater hockey originated in England in 1954. Alan Blake, a member of the Southsea Sub-Aqua Club in Portsmouth, is widely credited with devising the game. It offered divers an active way to keep fit and enjoy an underwater activity during the colder months, when outdoor diving could be less appealing. Early versions developed into a competitive sport with equipment and rules of its own.

The name “Octopush” is associated with the game’s British beginnings. It combines “octopus” with “push,” referring to the action of pushing the puck. The sport is now commonly called underwater hockey around the world. “Octopush” remains in use, but the name does not mean that the game involves an octopus or that players use eight sticks.

From its beginnings in a diving club, the sport spread to other countries and developed organized clubs, national associations, and international competitions. Its growth reflects its unusual mix of team tactics and underwater movement. A player may have only a few seconds to reach the puck, make a pass, and surface, which gives the game a distinctive rhythm compared with hockey played on land or ice.

Equipment and playing area

Players wear a mask, snorkel, and fins. The mask lets them see underwater; the snorkel lets them breathe while swimming face-down at the surface; and the fins help them move quickly through the water. Competitors commonly wear a water polo-style cap with ear protection, as well as a protective glove on the hand that holds the stick. The cap helps distinguish teams and protects the ears from accidental contact.

The stick, or pusher, is short enough to handle easily underwater. Players hold it in one hand and use it to push or flick the puck. The puck is dense and weighted so it travels along the pool bottom rather than floating away. It is usually coated with a material that makes it easier to handle and helps protect the playing surface. Exact equipment dimensions and specifications are set by the applicable rules.

The goals are typically metal troughs placed on the pool floor at each end of the playing area. A team scores by getting the puck into the opponent’s trough. Pool size and depth can vary between venues, but the space must allow players to swim, dive, and compete safely. The bottom should be suitable for play, and the pool must have clear boundaries and enough room for substitutes and officials around the playing area.

A player’s equipment has to work together. A well-fitting mask and snorkel support clear vision and breathing at the surface; fins provide propulsion; and the stick and glove help with puck control and hand protection. Players need to learn to surface and breathe without losing track of the action, so even apparently simple equipment requires practice.

Teams, rules, and scoring

In the standard format, each team has six players in the water at a time, with substitutes available. Team rosters and substitution arrangements are set by the competition rules. Players often change frequently: a player who has just completed an underwater effort can come off while a teammate enters or takes over the position. This lets the team keep pressure on the puck without requiring one person to remain submerged for too long.

At the start of play, the teams begin from opposite ends of the pool. When play starts, players swim toward the puck, which is placed near the middle. The teams then try to carry the puck across the pool bottom and score in the opposing goal. A match is usually divided into two timed halves, with a break between them; the exact duration and procedures depend on the event’s rules.

Players may use the stick to move the puck, but they cannot simply pick it up and carry it in a hand. Nor should they use a hand or arm to play the puck. Puck movement is made with the pusher, and controlling it close to the bottom is a basic skill. A goal counts when the puck enters the opposing team’s goal trough according to the rules in force.

Fair play and safety rules restrict dangerous actions. Players must not use their stick or fins to injure or intimidate opponents, hold an opponent, or gain an unfair advantage through prohibited contact. Officials can stop play and award the appropriate restart or penalty for infringements. The precise response depends on the type and seriousness of the offence and on the competition rules.

Because players are underwater, refereeing may involve officials positioned in the water as well as surface officials. Their job is to monitor play, identify goals and fouls, and restart the game when necessary. In some competitions, underwater officials use hand signals or other agreed methods to communicate with officials at the surface. Clear officiating helps keep a fast-moving sport fair.

Skills and tactics

A good underwater hockey player needs more than a strong kick. Core skills include controlled finning, safe breath-holding, quickly locating the puck, accurate pushing, and recovering to the surface calmly. Players must keep their bodies and equipment under control in a crowded space. Efficient movement matters: unnecessary effort uses energy and can shorten the time a player can contribute underwater.

Puck control is learned through repetition. A player can push the puck along the bottom, make a short pass to a teammate, or use a flick to send it farther. The best choice depends on the situation. A pass may be safer than trying to swim through several defenders, while a quick flick can move the puck into open space. Players need to aim accurately because the puck can be difficult to recover if it travels away from the group.

Teamwork is essential. Since each player must surface to breathe, teammates can take turns supporting the attack and defence. A player diving toward the puck may be joined by a teammate positioned to receive a pass, while another player stays ready to cover the route toward the goal. Teams often organize players into attacking and defensive roles, but formations can change as the puck moves.

Communication takes practice because speech is not useful underwater. Players use their positioning, timing, and agreed signals to show where they are going or when they need support. Looking up at the surface between dives helps a player understand the developing play. Teammates who anticipate one another’s movements can keep possession more effectively than players who all chase the puck at once.

Defence is not just a matter of blocking the goal. Defenders can try to intercept a pass, steer the puck away from a dangerous area, or support a teammate who is challenging the puck carrier. Good defensive positioning leaves room to recover if the puck changes direction. Players must also avoid crowding or obstructing opponents in ways that breach the rules.

Safety, training, and competition

Underwater hockey is a breath-hold sport, so safety comes before winning. Players should train under qualified supervision, follow the rules of their club and pool, and never practice risky breath-holding alone. A player who feels unwell, unusually tired, or short of breath should stop and tell a coach or official. Breath-hold training should be gradual and supervised rather than based on pushing through warning signs.

A proper warm-up helps prepare the body for swimming and repeated dives. Beginners can first become comfortable with the mask, snorkel, fins, and puck in a controlled setting. They then build swimming, puck-handling, and team skills over time. Coaches should make sure players understand pool boundaries, substitution procedures, equipment checks, and how play is stopped in an emergency.

Protective equipment and respect for opponents are also important. A correctly fitted cap, glove, mask, and snorkel reduce discomfort and help players participate safely, but equipment does not remove the need for care. Sticks and fins should be controlled, and players should not make dangerous contact. Officials and coaches help enforce safe play and respond if a player needs assistance.

The sport is played in clubs and organized competitions, from local events to international championships. CMAS oversees international underwater sports and publishes rules for underwater hockey. National bodies organize participation within their countries, while individual leagues and tournaments may set event-specific procedures within the governing framework. Anyone interested in playing can look for a local underwater hockey or Octopush club, where they can learn the rules and equipment practices directly.

Underwater hockey rewards a blend of physical fitness and decision-making. A team may have strong swimmers, but it also needs players who can pass accurately, defend patiently, and work together as people rotate in and out of the action. For newcomers, learning the basic equipment and safe movement is a better starting point than trying to hold their breath longer than everyone else.

Summary

Underwater hockey, also called Octopush, is a team sport invented in England in 1954 and widely credited to Alan Blake. Six players per team are typically in the water at once, using short sticks to move a weighted puck along a pool bottom and into a goal trough. Players wear masks, snorkels, fins, and protective gear, and they surface to breathe between dives. Skillful puck control, smart positioning, teamwork, and safe breath-hold practices are central to the game.